Umesh Yadav interest in cricket grew in his early twenties. He took up fast bowling at a relatively late age but quickly made a mark with his pace. Yadav made his first-class debut for Vidarbha in 2008. His performances earned him a spot in the Indian Premier League (IPL), where he started playing for the Delhi Daredevils (now Delhi Capitals) in 2010. The same year, he made his One Day International (ODI) debut for India against Zimbabwe. His Test debut came in November 2011 against the West Indies, in which he took two wickets in his first innings. His ability to bowl consistently at speeds exceeding 140 km/h made him an asset to the Indian team.

In the 2011-2012 season, Yadav's notable performance came during India's tour of Australia, where he emerged as India's highest wicket-taker in the Test series. He followed this up with a strong showing in the 2012 Asia Cup, where his pace caused problems for the opposition batters. Yadav's performance in the 2013-14 season was inconsistent, but he remained a regular feature in the Indian Test squad. He played a significant role in India's tour of England in 2014, where he was the third-highest wicket-taker for India in the series. His performance in the 2015 Cricket World Cup further showcased his potential, where he ended up as India's highest wicket-taker with 18 wickets.

In 2017, Yadav became the third Indian pacer to take 100 Test wickets. He continued to play for various franchises in the IPL, including Kolkata Knight Riders and Royal Challengers Bangalore, where his ability to bowl quick deliveries remained valuable.

The 2018-19 Test series against Australia saw Yadav in good form as he became the third Indian fast bowler to take a five-wicket haul in Australia. His performances contributed to India's first-ever Test series victory on Australian soil. The same year, Yadav reached the milestone of 150 Test wickets, emphasizing his longevity in the most extended game's longest format.

Yadav was part of the Indian squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup but did not play many games due to team selection dynamics. However, he remained a significant player in India's pace attack, known for his ability to extract reverse swing.

In the 2019-20 Ranji Trophy season, he took a career-best 8 for 41, showcasing his continued form in the domestic circuit. In 2020, he became only the fifth Indian fast bowler to reach 150 ODI wickets.

In 2022, Yadav took a five-wicket haul against Bangladesh in the second Test, helping India secure a crucial victory in the series. Despite being utilized selectively in the shorter formats, he remained a reliable bowler for India in Test cricket.

In 2023, Umesh Yadav continued to be a part of the Indian Test squad, though his appearances were limited due to the emergence of a strong pace attack and the team management's rotation policy.

The Indian team management included Yadav in the squad for the ICC Cricket World Cup held in India in 2023, where he was used in specific matches to exploit conditions that favored fast bowling.

In 2024, Yadav remained focused on his domestic career and continued representing Vidarbha in domestic tournaments. He also maintained his presence in the IPL, using his experience to guide younger bowlers in the franchise.